Comparing the Role of Women in Their Eyes Were Watching God and Go Tell

The Role of Women in Their Eyes Were Watching God and Go Tell It On the Mountain   Ã‚   Historically, the job of women in society is to care for the husband, the home, and the children. As a homemaker, it has been up to the woman to support the husband and care for the house; as a mother, the role was to care for the children and pass along cultural traditions and values to the children. These roles are no different in the African-American community, except for the fact that they are magnified to even larger proportions. The image of the mother in African-American culture is one of guidance, love, and wisdom; quite often the mother is the shaping and driving force of African-American children. This is reflected in the literature of the African-American as a special bond of love and loyalty to the mother figure. Just as the role of motherhood in African-American culture is magnified and elevated, so is the role of the wife. The literature reflects this by showing the African-American man struggling to make a living for himself and his family with his wife either being emotionally or physically submissive. Understanding the role of women in the African-American community starts by examining the roles of women in African-American literature. Because literature is a reflection of the community from which it comes, the portrayal of women in Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937) and James Baldwin's Go Tell it on the Mountain (1952) is consistent with the roles mentioned above.    Their Eyes Were Watching God is a good place to start examining the roles of African-American women. It is written by a woman, Zora Neale Hurston, and from a woman's perspective. This book examines the relationship between Janie and... ...       Works Cited and Consulted Baldwin, James. Go Tell it on the Mountain (1952). New York: Bantam-Dell, 1952. Bourn, Byron D. "Women's Roles in Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God and James Baldwin's Go Tell It On the Mountain" Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937). : Urbana, Ill.: U of Illinois P, 1937. Kubitschek, Missy Dehn. " 'Tuh de Horizon and Back': The Female Quest in Their Eyes Were Watching God." Modern Critical Interpretations: Zora Neale Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God. Ed. Harold Bloom. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1987. Pondrom, Cyrena N. "The Role of Myth in Hurston's Their Eyes Were Watching God." American Literature 58.2 (May 1986): 181-202. Williams, Shirley Anne. Forward. Their Eyes Were Watching God. By Zora Neale Hurston. New York: Bantam-Dell, 1937. xv.      

Historical and political relation of anthropology with human rights Essay

From the onset, it is necessary to define anthropology as the social science that is involved with studying the inherent relationship patterns and origins of human beings. As a juxtaposition, the concept of human rights refers to the intrinsic freedoms and rights to which all and sundry (human beings) are entitled, if only by virtue of belonging to the human race, and these are broadly categorized into two main classifications, including the socio-cultural and economic rights, which pertain to the rights to education, food, work and participate in culture. The other distinct grouping of rights and freedoms are those of civil and political nature, encompassing the ideology of people being equal before the law, the right to liberty and life, and also, the freedom to freely express oneself, provided that this does not interfere with that of other people. It is noteworthy that the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights – a non-binding declaration by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948 – reiterates the equality of all humans as relates to their rights and dignity, further acknowledging that each individual was equipped with the vital tools of a rational conscience and logical reasoning, and thus, all subsequent inter-personal relationships ought to reflect a communal spirit of brotherly co-existence. This cognition is widely viewed as being the framework for justice, peace and freedom in the globe today (Goodale, 2004:18-29). From a historical perspective, the anthropologist is more concerned with deciphering the linkage between the afore-mentioned rights and the prevailing localized cultures, from whence an understanding of the basic outline of social justice against a backdrop of cultural relativism is investigated. The general concession is that indeed, deliberation into the historical aspects of anthropology reveals a contribution to both the practical and theoretical facets of human rights workings. Select case studies closely related to this postulation include the current crisis in the Middle East, pitting the Israelis against the inhabitants of the Gaza strip, the Rwandan genocide (Bowman, 2000:31-49) and the topical issue of gay rights in Southern Africa. The former predicament entails Israel devastating, over the recent past, a population of some 1. million inhabitants in Gaza, with their arms tied behind their backs, owing to the fact that there is no active army in Gaza. Statistics reveal that close to 1300 Palestinian casualties are on record, as opposed to a measly 13 Israelis in the raging conflict, largely regarded as a modern day case of ‘ethnic cleansing’. Since the year 2006, Israel placed a blockade into the Gaza region, thus inhibiting the delivery of necessities such as medicine, food and fuel. Previous attempts to foster harmony and well-being in the region, with cease-fires being disrespected severally, have led up to the present situation in which the stakeholders in the conflict, chief amongst which is the Hamas, the Islamic Palestinian socio-political faction that has been in control of the Gaza strip, and Israel itself, have agreed to permanently seek a lasting solution to avoid more bloodshed. The possible recommendations to aid in arriving at a peaceful co-existence is scenario where Israel takes the front row in ensuring a sense of hope to the Palestinians, via the action of taking the political risk and dismantling the illegal West Bank Settlements. On their part, Palestinians should institute measures to ensure they elect purposive leaders into power, if only to militate against the eventuality of history repeating itself iteratively. Hamas should in turn cease firing missiles into Israel, which only serve to wound and kill majority of the innocent civilians, and the large scale smuggling of arms, so as to avoid the likelihood of the situation degenerating into another â€Å"United States versus Al Qaeda† affair. Also, the other stakeholders in the conflict, namely Jordan and Egypt, should seal all loopholes that enable the military exploits of the Hamas to fall through. This being said, the International community should actively ensure they do not turn a deaf ear to the conflict, to be spearheaded by the United Nations and the European Union. The latter, in detail, involved South Africa holding its second, fully democratic elections in the year 1999, which were characterized by the recognition of a wide array of groups and previously neglected factions of the population, such as the gay and lesbian community. Earlier on, the country made history by pioneering non-discrimination on the basis of an individual’s sexual orientation, with gay and lesbian activists championing their cause by widely challenging the very constitutionality of laws that infringed on their freedoms, organizing workshops to educate voters on their rights, plus lobbying for the drafting and resultant implementation of rules and legislations guaranteeing equity in the rights of all citizens (Goodale, 2004:43-54). They also went a step further and created working relationships with non-governmental organizations like the Human Rights Commission and the Commission on Gender Equality, in addition to forming outreach programmes for the members of the gay and lesbian community, especially those that lived in townships. Of particular note is the fact that sodomy has been decriminalized before the South African courts, thus recording another victory in the war for adequate recognition of this community. Of significance is the assertion that, these developments were achieved even with the realization that the South African populace was still divided along ethnic and racial boundaries (Riches, 1986:16-29), and more importantly, within the indigenous cultural groupings in the country, homosexuality is deemed non-existent, or on the best case scenario, a foreign acquisition. Thus, in a nutshell, this case study can be assessed from the view that it not only shapes social patterns, but also, it is instrumental in the democratization of regimes, as influenced by the civil society. Yet another occurrence was witnessed in an iconic court case in Japan (2008), involving the challenging of the historical definition of whom the concept of â€Å"human rights† is meant to apply. The immediate bone of contention was that the court of the day had proceeded to expand the rights of the children of Japanese fathers and non-Japanese mothers to claim Japanese citizenship, and thus by extension, such definition by the justices in the case served to only ensure the protection of the fundamental human rights of Japanese citizens, excluding those of other non-citizens. In this way, this can be said to expressly alienate those people who did not have papers certifying their Japanese citizenship. However, this ought not to be the case, as the rights in question should be guaranteed to every human being, as the very name suggests. In a publication by one Professor Jones regarding this case, he posits that there is a sorry state of affairs in Japan, citing that the tendency of the Sovereign state to mediate the citizens’ claims against each other should be sharply contrasted against the Anglo-American system, which is characterized by human rights being the limiting factor of the state’s power over individuals. In this way, the case is illustrative of how culture and history can affect and/or influence human rights in society (Kurtz, 2001: 43-52). Whilst still appreciating the historical contribution of anthropology to human rights, it is worthwhile to take mention of the concept of hegemony, defined as the utter domination of a state over its allies, and how this has over time influenced historical changes, especially on the cultural frontier. As a focal point, hegemony facilitates the comprehension of power within the confines of routine daily activities, as may be underpinned by cultural (customary) practices (Asad, 1991:13-27). On a more positive note, it is fit to state that the anthropological theory has over the years succeeded to come up with a contested, unbounded and widely flexible supposition of the term, which consequently goes a long way in uncovering the cultural understandings and how these in turn shape power relations, naturalizing domination and acting to suppress different manifestations of resistance in the society (Gledhill, 2000:29-44). Again, drawing from the South African example, although in a different context, it can be established that, quite ironically, the evangelical work of missionaries can be termed as being part of hegemony, although it heightened societal consciousness, going on to spark a form of resistance that gave rise to the awareness of the black community, fuelling the fight against apartheid. Of particular contention is the debate whether, as an interpretive issue, resistance in society should require consciousness and be collective in nature, or whether on the other hand, an end of attaining justice should be envisioned from the onset. Also, it is disputable whether the concept at hand should be extended to incorporate such actions as may be influenced by a sense of non-cooperation or discontent. In the recent past, there has been great agitation in the anthropological circles, wherein the concept of culture has been scrutinized in detail. Earlier anthropologists focused chiefly on societies that were virtually unaffected by factors such as colonial influences, for example, but there’s light at the end of the tunnel since, today, greater emphasis is being laid on flexibility of the frame of thought of culture, as afore-mentioned, now not only being affiliated to habits and daily practices of a people, but also, being engrained in the values they abide to and the ideas subscribed to. In other instances, there have been historical documentations of indigenous communities confronting resistance from the perspective of laying claim to various resources, more so when these individuals are challenged to prove an authentic affiliation to the culture under consideration (Rejali, 1994:49-60); disqualification usually results from the assertion that certain social groups have already undergone cultural changes. In a strange twist, it can be seen that the concept of ‘culture’, as formulated by twentieth century anthropologists in a bid to champion the rights of small-scale communities in the wake of colonialism and other civilizing projects, has in present times been apposite to differing political ends of resisting reform in certain sectors and turning a deaf ear to the claims of indigenous people’s claims to reparation (compensation). On a transitional note, the political inclination of anthropology to human rights can be deduced by critical analysis of the two disciplines (Cohen, 1978:34-57). Such relationship necessitates a vivid conception of the said human rights within a template of anthropologically conceived ideas or principles. A brief intermission here is the appreciation that, as an academic discipline, anthropology seeks to study the various forms and bases of human unity and relative diversity, while the other side of this coin practically applies the acquired knowledge to actively solve problems that may plague the human race (Gledhill, 2000:59-83). This being the situation, politically-oriented anthropologists should concern themselves with instances where the denial of certain rights is pegged on the differences in one human aspect or the other. The validity of using ‘human difference’ as an indicator of human rights is that it incorporates the very specificity of what we as humans – be it collectively or from an individual stance – have evolved to be, both culturally and socially. It is worth noting that the term ‘difference’, as applied in this context, refers to the linguistic, socio-cultural and/or biological characteristics of people, relative to the initial human capacities that facilitated their production in the first place. On the flipside, as may relate to human rights, these ‘differences’ may principally represent the products of the realization of social relations, personal identities and cultural forms (Goodale, 2004:98-110). The general implication of the above argumentation is that specific human rights may be advocated for by calling upon the trans-cultural, but positive, right to difference. This analogy can be stretched further still by acknowledging the unwritten law that anthropologists who study and research instances of societal injustices and assorted cases of human rights abuses do, in the actual sense, bear an ethical obligation to find lasting solutions to these predicaments. In particular, those working with marginal and/or indigenous communities shoulder the responsibility of supporting these groups by all means available, including advocacy as mentioned above (Fried, 1967:61-69).

Gun Violence Epidemic and the Second Amendment - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 884 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/03/20 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Gun Violence Essay Did you like this example? The right to own a gun is established as the Second Amendment in the United States Constitution. Though this right is guaranteed, our countrys relationship with guns is a tumultuous one. Gun laws vary by each state, for instance California gun laws states that, An application for sale or transfer must be made with a licensed California gun dealer before any firearm may be sold or transferred. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Gun Violence Epidemic and the Second Amendment" essay for you Create order The purchaser must present the dealer with a valid California Drivers License or a California identification card and supply their right thumbprint. The dealer sends a copy of the application to the California Department of Justice and the local police chief or sheriff. The CA DOJ will conduct a background check on each buyer. Dealers must keep a register of all firearm transfers (Institute for Legislative Action, 2014). Though these requirements seem like purchasing a gun is complex, in reality one can purchase one with ease. Huffington Post reports that, In 36 states, there are no legal requirements for gun registration, no permit needed and no license necessary to purchase and own a firearm such as a rifle, shotgun, or handgun (2016). This easy access that Americans have to firearms has resulted in an increase of homicides, Violence: The enduring problem by Alex Alvazrez and Ronet Bachman (2017) give statistics on firearm homicides, In 2010, over 12,00 rape victims, over 140,000 r obbery victims, and over 184,000 assault victims faced an offender who was armed with a firearm (Alvarez Bachman, 2017). Gun violence has proven time and time again that it is an ever-growing issue in country, yet we have not taken the necessary steps to improve our situation. In the last decade, the United States has seen the deadliest mass shootings in history of the country. Washington Post reporter, Christopher Ingraham, explains mortality data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, At least 26,000 children and teenagers younger than 18 were killed by gunfire in the United States between 1999 and 2016 (Ingraham, 2018). Most recently the United States has seen an increase in school shootings. The latest school shooting happened in Parkland, Florida, leaving 17 dead. It was the 30th mass shooting in 45 days of 2018 (CNN, 2018). CNN reports that the deadliest mass shooting in our history occurred in Las Vegas, in October of 2017, where Stephan Paddock fired on concert, killing 58 and injuring 500 (CNN, 2018). The shootings at Pulse night club to Sandy Hook elementary school have reignited the national debate over gun ownership yet little to nothing has been done to find a resolution. Instead of focusing on legislation to enact safer gun laws , the President declared this as a mental health issue, instead of a gun issue. In an article, posted by Katie Rogers, a reporter for the New York Times, details the response the President gave after the shooting in Parkland, Florida. Trump stated that he wanted to help secure our schools, and tackle the difficult issue of mental health (Rogers,2018). While mental illness may play a part for an individual to commit an act of violence, it is reckless to name it the sole reason for these types of attacks. The Atlantic news reporter Olga Khazan, gives some background on the Parkland shooter, 19-year-old Nikolas Cruz, He seemed fixated on guns and on killing animals, and his mother would sometimes call the police on him in an effort to manage his behavior and was in and out of mental-health treatment (Khazan, 2018). Shootings can be prevented; parents and schools should be aware of students that are showing signs of aggression and mental illness. Blaming mental illness on gun violence d eters us from seeing the real issue at hand, which is the lack of gun control. Though our country is among the most advanced in the world, the Unites States has 31st highest rate of gun violence in the world according to Nurith Aizenman, a reporter for WSKG. The United States had 3.85 deaths due to gun violence per 100,000 people in 2016, which was eight times higher than our Canadian neighbors (Aizenman, 2018). This can only make us wonder what are we doing differently in comparison to other countries. The main difference is how these countries react to mass shootings. For example, The Guardian posted an article written by different journalist in various countries. The article gives an instance of Germany reacted to a school shooting, where an expelled student shot 16 people dead and within a year the country regulated its laws, Germany is the only country in the world where anyone under the age of 25 who applies for their first firearms license must undergo a psychiatric evaluation with a trained counsellor, involving personality and anger management tests (Jowit, Laville, Wahquist, Oltermann, McCurry, Beckett 2016). In Port Arthur, Australia, a shooting that killed 35 was the worst in the countrys history and they responded quickly t o the attack, Australias then prime minister, John Howard, announced a sweeping package of gun reforms in a country where guns had long been considered an essential prop in the national mythology of life in the bush (Jowit, Laville, Wahquist, Oltermann, McCurry, Beckett 2016). Before this change was made, Port Arthur had 13 mass shootings 20 years beforehand, after the reforms there has been no shootings. The United States should look at these countries as a guide to better fix our own. Though the killing of 20 first graders at Sandy Hook school not convince our government to act on these attacks, what will?

David Mccullough s Life And Many Significant Events Of...

1776-David McCullough In 1776 renowned author David McCullough highlights the life and many significant events of the time. Most of the events of 1776 are set in areas like Boston and New York in the Eastern Seaboard. 1776 follows Washington through his triumphs and defeats of the Revolutionary War and gives a detailed description of Washington’s background. The style in which McCullough writes in makes this book simpler and easier to understand. McCullough gives a detailed-although sometimes biased-perspective of both sides of the war that is somewhat neutral. The book is started with a detailed description of the pampered king George III and his royal coach. McCullough states that George III was only twenty-two when he rose to power and took the throne. McCullough describes George III as dull and a simple character overall. George III was a big fanatic of music and art; he was even described as a gifted violinist and a gifted pianist. He also collected books and was the owne r of a vast library. McCullough says â€Å"No mortal on earth rode in such style as their king, the English knew.† The king’s loves and hobbies led to him finding the Royal Academy of Arts. I feel as if the description and background information that McCullough provides us with, help us better understand George III reasoning and intentions. As conflict in the new world emerges, it is the king’s duty to take charge and intervene in the matter. George III had no military experience whatsoever but he stillShow MoreRelatedSoviet Actions And The Cold War2092 Words   |  9 PagesAirlift in 1948. In order to evaluate the Soviet’s actions, important events are assessed in reference to the political changes leading up to the Berlin Airlift. This is important because it shows the events to setting the tone for the beginning of the Cold War. Articles are mostly used to evaluate these events and the significance of them. Two other sources in this essay are Truman a uthored by David McCullough and The 1940’s: Decade of Triumph and Trouble compiled by Cabell Phillips. These sourcesRead MoreRatification : The People Debate1728 Words   |  7 Pagesand found there was a legitimate concern for the new federal government to be as powerful as proposed in the Constitution and that many prominent, and not so prominent, men within the states’ legislatures, taverns, and coffee houses voiced vehement opposition to the Constitution’s ratification. As an historian and prolific writer, Maier dedicated her professional life to the study and teaching of late colonial and revolutionary America. She initially wanted to be a journalist but realized her life’sRead More Truman Doctrine Essay example2407 Words   |  10 Pagesstem growing Communist sentiment in these countries.The process whereby the Truman Doctrine came to fruition was a long and arduous one. After World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States stood at the pinnacle of world power. By the late 40s, the U.S.S.R. had caught up to the United States nuclear weapons programs. In addition, they were very land-hungry. Throughout Russias history, they have been in search of a port - a quest advanced further by Peter the Great and Catherine the GreatRead MoreEvidence-Based Treatments for Childhood Depression3114 Words   |  13 Pagessee more longitudinal studies conducted to contribute to the already existing body of knowledge to further investigate if the depressive symptoms return after a period of time even if the treatment/s have proven to be effective. On a more positive note, there has been a significant amount of evidence that proves effective many different approaches to treating childhood depression. Discussion The first treatment approach I would like to discuss is family therapy. If a case involves any typeRead MoreOffensive Advertising : Advertising, Muslims, And Consumer Behaviour9514 Words   |  39 Pagesbehaviour. 2.1 The nature of offensive advertising In an age where consumers are exposed to an estimated 3,000 to 20,000 advertisements per day; where the higher numbers include every time you pass by a label in a grocery store, all the ads in your mailbox whether you see them or not, the label on everything you wear, etc (David Lamoureux, 2014); controversial advertisement techniques (also known as shock appeals, provocative appeals or offensive advertisement) has become the obvious answer to attract consumersRead MoreCommunication Management Challenges in Construction Project Execution63139 Words   |  253 PagesGo Up to Table of Contents |    | Go To Chapter 2 (Organizing for Project Management) | The Owners Perspective   Ã‚  Ã‚   Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚   The Project Life Cycle   Ã‚  Ã‚   Major Types of Construction   Ã‚  Ã‚   Selection of Professional Services   Ã‚  Ã‚   Construction Contractors   Ã‚  Ã‚   Financing of Constructed Facilities   Ã‚  Ã‚   Legal and Regulatory Requirements   Ã‚  Ã‚   The Changing Environment of the Construction Industry   Ã‚  Ã‚   The Role of Project Managers   Ã‚  Ã‚   References   Ã‚  Ã‚   Footnotes | | | 1. The Owners Perspective Read MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesChapter-by-chapter activities, including built-in pretests and posttests, focus on what you need to learn and to review in order to succeed. Visit www.mymanagementlab.com to learn more. DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS EIGHTH EDITION David A. Whetten BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY Kim S. Cameron UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Prentice Hall Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo

Analysis Of The Movie What s Eating Gilbert Grape

Analysis Paper of the Film What’s Eating Gilbert Grape Sharon K. Chapman Tarleton State University Abstract [The abstract should be one paragraph of between 150 and 250 words. It is not indented. Section titles, such as the word Abstract above, are not considered headings so they don’t use bold heading format. Instead, use the Section Title style. This style automatically starts your section on a new page, so you don’t have to add page breaks. Note that all of the styles for this template are available on the Home tab of the ribbon, in the Styles gallery.] Keywords: [Click here to add keywords.] Analysis Paper of the Film What’s Eating Gilbert Grape The Grapes are a poor, Midwestern family living in an isolated part of their community. The father of the Grape family successfully completed suicide by hanging in the families’ basement. The mother is a shut-in who is morbidly obese, and is unable to care for herself, or her family. There are three brothers and two sisters, the oldest brother Larry â€Å"escaped† and is not living in the home. The youngest brother Arnie is intellectually challenged and requires constant supervision. Gilbert is the second oldest brother, and has become the father figure of the family. The oldest sister Amy acts as the surrogate mother. The youngest sibling in the family is Ellen, she is a typical egocentric teenager. Ellen has learned what buttons to push to set off explosions in the family. The stress that is occurring in the family is causingShow MoreRelatedPsychology Based Movie Review : What s Eating Gilbert Grape1646 Words   |  7 PagesBased Movie Review of What’s Eating Gilbert Grape What’s Eating Gilbert Grape is a motion picture drama that follows the life of the Grape family in the small, lackluster town of Endora (Hallstrom, 1993). Gilbert Grape, played by a young Johnny Depp, is the film’s predominant character and apparent man of the family after his father’s death. Throughout the movie, Gilbert narrates his thoughts as he attempts to navigate his familial responsibilities, his work, and his personal life. Gilbert strugglesRead MoreWhats Eating Gilbert Grape- Review and Critique2227 Words   |  9 PagesWhat’s Eating Gilbert Grape. Film review and critique. Society’s ideological constructs and attitudes towards minority groups are created and reinforced through media imagery. Although negative associations that maintain inequities with regard to race, gender and homophobia (Conner Bejoian, 2006) have been somewhat relieved, disability is still immersed in harmful connotations that restrict and inhibit the life of people with disabilities in our society. Disability has appeared frequently inRead MorePsychosocial Development Case Study Analysis1835 Words   |  8 Pages Psychosocial Development Case Study Analysis COUN5004 Survey of Research in Human Development for Professional Counselors Instructor: Dr. Rebekah Cole Abstract For this paper, I viewed the movie â€Å"What’s Eating Gilbert Grape†. I will identify the life stages the three characters I chose are in, what their psychological crisis each is, apply psychosocial theories to the situation presented, discuss the character’s life, how they functionRead MoreProject Mgmt296381 Words   |  1186 PagesLeadership Chapter 2 Organization Strategy and Project Selection 1.4 Projects and programs (.2) 1.4.1 Managing the portfolio 1.4.3 Strategy and projects 2.3 Stakeholders and review boards 12.1 RFP’s and vendor selection (.3.4.5) 11.2.2.6 SWAT analysis 6.5.2.7 Schedule compression 9.4.2.5 Leadership skills G.1 Project leadership 10.1 Stakeholder management Chapter 11 Teams Chapter 3 Organization: Structure and Culture 2.4.1 Organization cultures [G.7] 2.4.2 Organization structure

Examine the Extent to Which Gender Is Socially Constructed Free Essays

Gender differences are biologically constructed. We are born either as male or female. Without going any further these statements appear normal and one can take the view that this is the general assumption. We will write a custom essay sample on Examine the Extent to Which Gender Is Socially Constructed or any similar topic only for you Order Now What then is sex? Is there a difference between sex and gender? Distinctions between sex and gender have been made by social scientists from the feminist movement of 1970’s, when feminists argued that the traditional views of masculinity and femininity often led to the disempowerment of women. Ann Oakley (1972) in particular, set the stage for the socialization explorations of gender identity (Abbott 2005). Since this latter part of the 19th century, the common distinction made by sociologists is that sex is derived from the biological differences between men and women – chromosome make up, internal and external genitals and reproductive organs amongst others. Gender, however, refers to the socially constructed characteristics of masculinity and femininity, characteristics that are defined by different societies and cultures in different ways. In contrast, there are arguments proposing that gender differences are based on biological sex and result from biological factors – we naturally show characteristics of masculinity and femininity. These different views are often referred to as the nature v nurture debate (Marsh et al 2009, Lippa 2005 and Abbott 2005) Here we will look at some of the biological explanations in support of the assumption that gender differences are biologically determined before moving on to the sociological explorations of the social construction of gender, and the limitations of both views. We will also look at the gender differences across cultures and the influence of the mass media in shaping our society. Biological sex differences have often been used to explain the ‘natural’ differences in roles employed by men and women – men are naturally the breadwinners and the women nurture and take care of the family. The different arguments for the biological explanations of gender roles are often referred to as ‘essentialism’ and ‘biological determinism’ (Marsh et al 2009). Talcott Parsons (Parsons and Bales 1955 as cited in Marsh et al 009) argued that the natural differences between men and women suit them to specific roles within society. This is referred to as the ‘sex-role’ theory. This theory relies on the premise that there are two distinct categories of men and women throughout the world. It therefore follows that heterosexuality is viewed as the norm. This immediately excludes those persons who feel that th eir gender identity does not correspond with their biological sex, for example transsexuals and homosexuals. Since the first wave of feminism in the 1970’s the focus has shifted towards the now dominant socialization explanations of gender identity, however we still see new biological theories and studies appearing. For example, biological determinists have looked to the differences in male and female brains. In their book Brain Sex (1989), Anne Moir and David Jessel talk of the ‘prenatal hormone’ theory, whereby testosterone has an influence on thought process and emotions leading to the brain being wired differently between men and women (Marsh et al 2009). Simon Baron-Cohen also has similar views – â€Å"the female brain is predominantly hard-wired for empathy, and the male brain is predominantly hard-wired for understanding and building systems†. (Simon Baron-Cohen 2003 as cited in Marsh et al 2009:220). In contrast, the various socialization explanations of gender argue that our gender identities are created by society, by interactions from early childhood with parents, siblings and peers (social learning theory) and by external influences such as the mass media, continually developing through our social interactions and experiences into adulthood. The differences across cultures in what is considered as masculine and feminine are also studied in support of this concept. â€Å"The different social experiences of women and men are the creation of society far more than biology† (Macionis and Plummer 2005:308). The social learning theory suggests that from birth we learn what is considered as â€Å"gender-appropriate† behaviours and traits (Marsh et al 2009). â€Å"Infants are seen as blank states, waiting to be written on by their environment† (Bilton et al 2002:136). This theory suggests that through nteraction with parents, siblings and peers, children learn the characteristics of their gender role – which emotions to display, activities to take part in or avoid, toys to play with, clothing to wear, work and hobbies to pursue amongst others. It is also widely accepted that children copy what they see and try to emulate their peers etc. This is referred to by sociologists as ‘modelling’. The majority of persons will recall that some behaviours are encouraged and accepted whereas if a child emulates something that a parent views as wrong or abnormal this is discouraged. The reactions from parents etc. einforce the gender characteristics expected of the child (Marsh et al 2009). A study undertaken in North Carolina of pre school children (Robinson and Morris 1986 cited in Bilton et al 2002) proposes that the social learning theory is an incomplete explanation that we learn all ‘gender-appropriate’ behaviours. In this study, children were themselves selecting ‘gender-stereotyped’ toys for their Christmas presents. For example dolls were selected by the girls and military toys by the boys. The parents selections for the children were mostly sex-neutral – art supplies and musical instruments. The early inclinations of the children to conform to their gender roles cannot be explained by the social learning theory (Bilton et al 2002). In 1971 Sandra Bem, a Pennsylvanian psychologist created the Bem Sex Role Inventory. This inventory lists various characteristics which are stereotyped as being masculine (dominant, athletic) or feminine (affectionate, flatterable). Individuals can assess themselves by selecting which of the characteristics they view as being desirable for a man or woman in order to determine how well you fit into your traditional gender role. The results from a sample of participants show that both men and women share a range of what are considered to be stereotypical feminine and masculine traits (Marsh et al 2009). Some writers have interpreted that Bem is in effect arguing that â€Å"the development of typical gender roles and gender stereotyping are not inevitable† (Marchbank and Letherby 2007:125 as cited in Marsh et al 2009:223). In other words parents, teachers etc. can influence the gender identities of the children. Money and Ehrhdart (1972) report the case of a 7 month old boy who after losing his penis in an accident underwent surgery to reconstruct his genitals as female. He was thereafter raised as a girl and is reported to have developed normally as such (Money and Ehrdart 1972 as cited in Bilton et al 2002). This would support the interpreted view of Bem above. The stereotypical gender projections of the mass media are also said to have an influence on our gender identities, often reinforcing gender stereotypes. â€Å"The media are forms of pedagogy that teach us how to be men and women† (Kellner 1995:5 as cited in Marsh et al 2009:231). Some argue that the media however offers a variety of images that both challenge and support stereotypical views (Stacey 1994 as in Marsh et al 2009). Feminine stereotypes are reinforced by media representation of the fashion, beauty and diet industries, focussing on physical improvement and reinforcing the stereotype that women should always look their best and ‘primp’ and ‘preen’ themselves. Programmes such as How to Look Good Naked and Extreme Makeover are becoming increasingly popular. Masculine stereotypes are also reinforced in advertising. For example, the beer industry relies on the masculine stereotype to appeal to its audience and alternatives such as gay men and househusbands amongst others are markedly absent from this type of advert. (Strate 2004 cited in Marsh et al 2009). The media is viewed by sociologists as a powerful tool in conveying stereotypical and idealistic views of femininity and masculinity to its audience. Other arguments and studies highlighting the social construction of gender look at the different views across different cultures upon what characteristics are considered as masculine and feminine. Margaret Mead, an American cultural anthropologist, undertook a study of three primitive societies within New Guinea (1935), the Arapesh, the Mundugumor and the Tchambuli. Mead noted that the Arapesh men and women expressed similar attitudes and behaviours. They were peaceful, sensitive and cooperative, traits that in our culture are considered as feminine. The Mundugumor men and women again shared similar behaviours, however, in contrast to the Arapesh they displayed what we would view as masculine traits – aggressive, selfish and ‘warlike’. The Tchambuli men and women, similar to our culture, displayed different behaviours although the women displayed masculine traits of dominance and aggression, and the men displayed feminine traits, having responsibility for domestic activities and care of the young as well as ‘primping’ and decorating themselves (Macionis and Plummer 2005, Marsh et al 2009). A further example of the cultural differences surrounding masculinity and femininity can be seen in Samoa where men can take on the role and identity of females. They are known as fa’afafine which literally means ‘like a woman’. The biological sex is male but the gender is considered as female. They dress like women, carry out what are considered as the female tasks within the household – cooking, cleaning, and washing and have relationships with other men. It can be the choice of a boy to take on a female role or it may be that they are raised as fa’afafine by their family if they have no or few daughters needed to undertake the female role within the household. Although men have relationships with the fa’afafines they strongly feel that this is not homosexual behavior. Fa’afafines consider themselves female and believe that the men who have relations with them also see them as female (See – National Geographic Channel ‘Taboo’ studies). We can see clearly from Mead’s study and the fa’afafines in Samoa that different cultures define masculinity and femininity in different ways. Gender identities are capable of being shaped or formed, therefore giving substantial weight to the argument that gender is socially constructed and is derived from our social and cultural traditions and views. On balance, the arguments of the biological determinists appear very limited in their application to those outwith the ‘normal’ heterosexual categories of male and female. In contrast the socialization explanations show that we can influence gender identities and that although sex is biologically determined it does not automatically follow that we naturally inherit the stereotypical characteristics of masculinity and femininity. Mead’s study alone provides strong evidence to support this point. To conclude, the general assumption and explanations that gender differences are biologically determined appear to have been somewhat overshadowed since the 1970’s. The majority of sociologists are in preference of the views, studies and evidence that support the sociological explanation of gender as being socially constructed with any differences being derived from society and culture. In comparison, the biological viewpoints and theories appear to struggle to correlate with today’s modern and multicultural society. References Abbott, P. Wallace, C. and Tyler, M. (2005) An Introduction to Sociology: Feminist Perspectives. London: Routledge. Bilton, T. , Bonnett, K. , Jones, P. , Lawson, T. , Skinner, D. , Stanworth, M. and Webster, A. (2002) Introductory Sociology. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Lippa, R. A. (2005) Gender, Nature, and Nurture. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Macionis, J. and Plummer, K. (2005) Sociology: A Global Introduction. Harlow: Pearson. Marsh, I. , Keating, M. , Punch, S. and Harden, J. (2009) Sociology: Making Sense of Society. Harlow:Pearson. How to cite Examine the Extent to Which Gender Is Socially Constructed, Papers

Truman Doctrines free essay sample

States that it could no longer furnish the economic and military assistance it had been providing to Greece and Turkey since the end of WI. The Truman administration believed that both nations were threatened by communism and disputed at the chance to take a tough stand against the Soviet Union. In Greece, force has been battling the Greek royal government since the end Of WI. In Turkey, the Soviets were demanding some manner of control over the Darkness, territory from which Turkey was able to dominate the strategies waterways from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean.On March 1 2, 1947 Truman appear before a group of Congress to make his case. He declared the world faced a chance in the years to come. Nations could adapt a way of life based upon the will of the majority and minority forcibly imposed upon the majority. He proposed the Truman Doctrine which provided political, military, and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces. We will write a custom essay sample on Truman Doctrines or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It effectively reoriented U. S. Foreign policy, away from its usual standpoint of withdrawal from regional conflicts not directly involving the U. S. O one of possible intervention in far away conflicts. He began by outlining the situation In Greece and Turkey, Assistance is imperative if Greece is to survive as a free nation, they must have assistance if it is to become a self-sufficient and self- respecting democracy. Greece and Turkey will fall to communism without help. Truman requested that Congress provide $400 million worth of aid to both Greece and Turkey to support the dispatch of American civilian and military personnel and equipment to the region. Congress granted it. This became known as the Military Assistance Program.It ultimately led to NATO- Many historians say the Truman Doctrine marked the American policy of containment. The most famous passage from Traumas speech: l believe that it must be the policy of the U. S. To support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure. They ideas of this speech informed the communism that they can keep what it had got but Truman would not let it grow anymore. Houghton Muffling says that Truman Doctrine expanded the nations role in checking the spread of communism.